Science Through Fiction Pages: Acceptable Risk

"A classic is a book that has never finished saying what it has to say."  

Italo Calvino

A bookworm

It happens so often that we prove our self a perfect bookworm when we communicate so much with the subject that the book becomes a reporting page with all the allied branches of human knowledge converging to, in a particular time and space of ours.

Acceptable Risk  

A 1994 Robin Cook's best selling medical thriller, which narrates the story of a young researcher isolating a stunningly effective anti-depressant from a mould first uncovered over 200 years ago. But there is more to the drug than anyone could have imagined....

 And when we love some subject, then the book becomes classic of it's own kind as it starts saying through our inscriptions on the same very pages of it !!

Some other source of alkaloid in nature

A curiosity took me to see Chem. Abstr. 1961,16915p and 1964, 60, 3945 p to know that this D-Lysergamide whose molecular formula is C₂₀H₂₅N₃O

^{And these chemical actually mimic the brain actions causing hallucination and delusions, which also found in :}

^{# Ipomea tricolor (Syn. I. violaceae) morning glory, family Convolvulaceae. Ergot alkaloid in seeds, producing psychosis like state.}

^{# Ergot disease of rye due to fungus Claviceps purpurea, may cause....}

^{# Ergotism in humans} 

The mystery molecule

The book amazes most as we find that: 
the molecular structure of the central character of this novel on a super computer by a new structural software, which reveals that:

Four ringed structural core of the compound, with five side chains, one was tetra cyclic and resembled LSD, another had two rings and resembled drug called Scopolamine. The last three resembled the brain's major neurotransmitters: norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin.

Structural details of Central Nervous System of humans, mid brain highlighted

 ^{Our central Nervous system
And of course when it comes to Central Nervous System, brain and out of it's three major parts: Prosencephalon, Mesencephalon and Rhombencephalon;  
Mid brain i.e. Mesencephalon is focused in the story as this part deals with Reflex and Instinct.}

A Neuron body and mid brain in detail which controls the instinct and reflexes

^{Our mid brain is a mystery place}

<sup>Perhaps the young researchers have had the 'Shakes' belief that 'body can achieve, what mind can conceive'. 

Between the synapses of Neuron lies the chemical code transaction and this was the place where LSD mimics the brain. 

Extremely amazing cells are Neuron as they conduct electrical impulses up to synapses. 100 A° thickness of the neuron cell bears 70 to 90 millivolt of resting potential which is equal to 100,000 volt per centimeter. Amazing bio insulator is the plasma membrane.</sup>

<sup>Well, mid brain is going to play a major role here as this is also the part of brain of our ancestors of Jurassic period, need less to say that we humans are the carriers of Reptilians brain structure. 

So reptilian traits are going to be enhanced in this story due to this intake of chemical being tested on them self....as this is the part which deals with Instinct and Reflexes.</sup>

				Some relevant references of those times Science In The News: Voice Of America: 5th March 1996, Tuesday  Tobacco and Asbestos are known to cause Cancer. Earlier studies found that Beta Carotine (which breaks in to Vitamin A in our digestive system) have preventive effect in such cases only when taken in natural form, not in the form of pills. So isolation from the fungus extract, the pure form of LSD-25 was sure as going to cause a havoc in the story..........this way or that !! Some relevant references of those times  Science In The News: Voice Of America: 5th March 1996: Tuesday Food and Drug Administration (USA) approved a synthetic 'fat substitute' developed by Proctor and Gamble scientist after 20 years of research studies, altering the molecular structure of Sugar, adding fat in it's side chain, recommending to use as snacks (with potato chips), named Olestra (derived from Olein), 30 grams of which may give 10 grams of fat (vitamin A,D,E,K to be added along with), passing through human system as Carbose without recognizing and storing (by body) it as fat. But alarming is this human endeavor as: certain studies say it may cause stomach pain and mild diarrhea and further warned ----it may cause heart disease and cancer. All kind of possible alarming hazards were put aside by the team of these young researchers in this book. Kim (she) and Edward (he); Central human characters from the book: They identified their identical identities, but the mould which molded their destinies on unidentical tracks. The end of the story:  Fallacy/Irony/Tragedy........hard to choose from !!

And if I were Kim and Edward, both characters of this book 'Acceptable Risk', I had to put my feelings in a poem as below to express myself:

Someday
I would crumble down

Due my own sins,

And it's sheer pressure

Will cause me to

Turn in to the matter

----Like white dwarfs

----In to the dark matter

----To become a part of the universe
----Which is 90 percent

----Yet unseen !!

(Anjani)

Molecular structure of alkaloid D-Lysegamide

Notes related:

Dr. Robin Cook: is an American physician and novelist who writes about medicine and topics affecting public health. To date, he has explored issues such as organ donation, genetic engineering, fertility treatment, in - vitro fertilization, research funding, managed care, medical malpractice, medical tourism, drug research, and organ transplantation.^[8] 
Some notes about or by author: # I joke that if my books stop selling, I can always fall back on brain surgery," he says. "But I am still very interested in it. If I had to do it over again, I would still study medicine. I think of myself more as a doctor who writes, rather than a writer who happens to be a doctor." He explained the popularity of his works thus: "The main reason is, we all realize we are at risk. We're all going to be patients sometime," he says. "You can write about great white sharks or haunted houses, and you can say I'm not going into the ocean or I'm not going in haunted houses, but you can't say you're not going to go into a hospital.^[7]
# Cook says he chose to write thrillers because the forum gives him "an opportunity to get the public interested in things about medicine that they didn't seem to know about. I believe my books are actually teaching people."^[8]
# The author admits he never thought that he would have such compelling material to work with when he began writing fiction in 1970. "If I tried to be the writer I am today a number of years ago, I wouldn't have very much to write about. But today, with the pace of change in biomedical research, there are any number of different issues, and new ones to come," he says.^[7]

Exploring Lost Places: Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)  
was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) located in the western region of South Asia, and spread over what are now Pakistan, northwest and western India, eastern Afghanistan, and southeastern Iran. Flourishing in the Indus River basin, the civilization extended east into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and the upper reaches Ganges-Yamuna Doab; it extended west to the Makran coast of Balochistan, north to northeastern Afghanistan and south to Daimabad in Maharashtra. The civilization was spread over some 1,260,000 km², making it the largest ancient civilization.

The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses.

Cities: A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centres in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.

Trade through shallow harbors located at the estuaries of rivers : There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf). Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the innovative development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.

Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in India testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbors located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.

The collapse of civilization: Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned.

A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East: The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event, as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. 

The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan. A 2004 paper indicated that the isotopes of the Ghaggar-Hakra system do not come from the Himalayan glaciers, and were rain-fed instead, contradicting a Harappan time mighty "Sarasvati" river.
Urban civilization gradually moved to Gangetic plains: A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also concluded that climate change in form of the easterward migration of the monsoons led to the decline of the IVC. The team's findings were published in PNAS in May 2012. According to their theory, the slow eastward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the civilization to develop. The monsoon-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoons kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricultural activities dried up. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out.

Indra-the god of rains: 
Most loved god of most old book ( Rig Veda) of Indian civilization:
As we find that mountain, rains, rivers have altered the course of life and in turn the whole set of civilization in such a great way that such vast cities of metropolitan structure (like Mumbai, India of today) deserted their habitation for all, a setback to then urban life style, loss of trade resulting in the migration of rich urban population to Gangetic plains and rest of poor population receded to villages. The pattern in settlement of IVC and Gangetic plain region have no difference.
Indra, the god of rains and thunderstorm is most revered god in the Rig Veda seems very justified.

1. Indra: the king of gods in Rig Veda: Indra (Devanagari: इन्द्र) or Śakra is the leader of the Devas or gods and Lord of Svargalok or heaven in Hindu mythology. He is the God of war, the god of thunderstorms. His weapon is the bolt (vajra). Indra is one of the chief deities in the Rigveda. He is the twin brother of Agni and hence said to be born of Dyaus Pitar (Father Heaven) and Prithvi Matar (Mother Earth). He is also mentioned as an Aditya, a son of Aditi. His home is situated on Mount Meru.
2. Origins of Indra:  Aspects of Indra as a deity are cognate to other Indo-European gods; they are either thunder gods such as Thor, Perun, and Zeus, or gods of intoxicating drinks such as Dionysos. The name of Indra (Indara) is also mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni, a Hurrian speaking people who ruled northern Syria from ca.1500BC-1300BC .

Janda (1998:221) suggests that the Proto-Indo-European (or Graeco-Aryan) predecessor of Indra had the epithet *trigw-welumos "smasher of the enclosure" (of Vritra, Vala) and diye-snūtyos "impeller of streams" (the liberated rivers, corresponding to Vedic apam ajas "agitator of the waters"), which resulted in the Greek gods Triptolemos and Dionysos.

Vedic Indra corresponds to Verethragna of the Zoroastrian Avesta as the noun verethragna- corresponds to Vedic vrtrahan-, which is predominantly an epithet of Indra. The word vrtra-/verethra- means "obstacle". Thus, vrtrahan-/verethragna- is the "smiter of resistance". Vritra as such does not appear in either the Avesta or in 9th-12th century books of Zoroastrian tradition. Since the name 'Indra' appears in Zoroastrian texts as that of a demon opposing Truth (Vd. 10.9; Dk. 9.3; Gbd. 27.6, 34.27)!> Zoroastrian tradition has separated both aspects of Indra.
3. Indra's Bow: In Hindu mythology, the rainbow is called Indra's Bow (Sanskrit: indradhanushya इंद्रधनुष).
4. Status and function: In the Rig Veda, Indra is the king of the gods and ruler of the heavens. Indra is the god of thunder and rain and a great warrior, a symbol of courage and strength. He leads the Deva (the gods who form and maintain Heaven) and the elements, such as Agni (Fire), Varuna (Water) and Surya (Sun), and constantly wages war against the opponents of the gods, the demon-like Asuras. As the god of war, he is also regarded as one of the Guardians of the directions, representing the east. As the favourite 'national' god of the Vedic Indians, Indra has about 250 hymns dedicated to him in the Rigveda.
5. Indra, Anthropomorhism: Scholars differ about the phenomenon which Indra represents. According to Max Műller Indra is the sun-god dispelling nocturnal darkness and pouring floods of light. Roth holds the view that Indra is the god of thunderstorm. Benfey regards Indra as the god of rainy sky. Grassmann taken him as the god of bright sky. Myrintheus identifies Indra with Dyaus. According to E. D. Perry Indra is the same as Greek Zeus and the Italian Jupiter. Macdonell and Keith are of opinion that Indra represents thunderstorm which brings down rain to the earth. Hopkins is of opinion that Indra represents lightning itself. Yãska's own view, that Indra or Vãyu as the deity of middle region represents the lightning in conflict with the clouds, supports the view of Hopkins. Indra as a god of thunderstorm representing lightning could legitimately be accompanied with Rudra, Maruts and Saramã. Indra is said to have pierced the mountains. They are described to move hither and thither like spotted deer. The clouds flying in air are fancied as atmospheric mountains with wings. At the time of Indra,s birth cows bellow.. This bellowing of cows refers to the roaring of clouds when lightning flashes.

picture courtesy:National Geographic

Indian Tectonic Plate: Rich Civilizational Cradle

Pangaea: was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, forming about 300 million years ago and beginning to rift around 200 million years ago, before the component continents were separated into their current configurations. The single global ocean which surrounded Pangaea is accordingly named Panthalassa.

Plate Tectonics: is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. The theory builds on the concepts of continental drift, developed during the first decades of the 20th century. It was accepted by the geoscientific community after the concepts of seafloor spreading were developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

 The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates. On Earth, there are seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically varies from zero to 100 mm annually.

Indian Plate: is a tectonic plate that was originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana from which it split off, eventually becoming a major plate. About 55 to 50 million years ago (contested), it fused with the adjacent Australian Plate. It is today part of the major Indo-Australian Plate, and includes most of South Asia and a portion of the basin under the Indian Ocean, including parts of South China and Eastern Indonesia, and extending up to but not including Ladakh, Kohistan and Balochistan.

In the late Cretaceous about 90 million years ago, subsequent to the splitting off from Gondwana of conjoined Madagascar and India, the Indian Plate split from Madagascar. It began moving north, at about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) per year, and is believed to have begun colliding with Asia between 55 and 50 million years ago, in the Eocene epoch of the Cenozoic, 

In 2007, German geologists suggested that the reason the Indian Plate moved so quickly is that it is only half as thick (100 kilometres (62 mi)) as the other plates^[12] which formerly constituted Gondwana. The mantle plume that once broke up Gondwana might also have melted the lower part of the Indian subcontinent, which allowed it to move both faster and further than the other parts.

The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the boundary between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalaya Mountains, as sediment bunched up like earth before a plow.

The Indian Plate is currently moving north-east at 5 centimetres (2.0 in) per year, while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 centimetres (0.79 in) per year. This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the India Plate to compress at a rate of 4 millimetres (0.16 in) per year.

Formation Of Himalayas: Geologically, the Himalayas originate from the northward movement of the Indian tectonic plate at 15 cm per year to impact the Eurasian continent, with first contact about 70 million years ago, and with movement continuing today. This caused the formation of the Himalayan arc peaks: the lighter rocks of the seabeds of that time were easily uplifted into mountains. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone.

Himalayan Impact on Climate: The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. They prevent frigid, dry Arctic winds blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan and Gobi.^[13]

The mountain ranges also prevent western winter disturbances in Iran from traveling further, resulting in snow in Kashmir and rainfall in parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite being a barrier to the cold, northerly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in the North East India and Bangladesh.

Himalayan Impact On Culture: Some of the world's major rivers, the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween, Red River (Asia), Xunjiang, Chao Phraya, Irrawaddy River, Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Tarim River and Yellow River, arise in the Himalayas, and their combined drainage basin is home to some 3 billion people (almost half of Earth's population) in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, People's Republic of China, India (almost half of the population of India live within 500 km of the Himalayan range),^{[citation needed]}, Nepal, Burma, Cambodia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia and Pakistan.

Sub Himalayan Plains Became A Fertile Place For Sustaining Rich Human Civilizations To Rise Along The Rivers:

Aryan Civilization:  
Aryan is an English language loanword derived from the Sanskrit ārya ('Noble'). In present-day academia, the terms "Indo-Iranian" and "Indo-European" have, according to many, made most uses of the term 'Aryan' minimal, and 'Aryan' is now mostly limited to its appearance in the term "Indo-Aryan" to represent (speakers of) North, West and Central Indian languages.
"Aryan"  it was used initially as a national name to designate the worshippers of the Hindu deities and especially Indra according to Brahmanical principles (performance of sacrifice, Yajna). The Zend airya 'venerable' and Old Persian ariya are also considered as national names. 

Aryan Civilization a continuity of Indus Valley Civilization: 

1. Similarities between Indus valley civilization and aryan civilization:

1. Indus valley civilization script though not understood till date has symbols such as 'OM' and 'swastika' which are used extensively in vedas. IVC script is actually pre sanskrit script.
2. Worshiping of idols, trees, animals, snakes and animal sacrifices to please gods are found to be common in two civilizations.
3. yoga postures found in vedas and pictures of god in same position found in ruins of IVC are similar.
4. Love for jewellery, bathing in large pool etc.. are still practiced in india today gives weight age to cultural continuance.
5. 2500 archaeological sites of IVC have no literature associated with them which implies ivc transferred their knowledge orally, this form of passing knowledge from one generation to another orally was started more than 10,000 years ago in India

2. Short comings of aryan invasion theory:

1. No aryan homeland outside india was found and also not mentioned in vedas.
2. 3000B.C was period Rig Veda belonged not 1200 B.C as previously predicted according to latest findings. So, Rig veda the basic literature of aryans could not have been present 1800 years before the aryans invaded india. therefore giving light to the cultural continuance of IVC and erroneous theory of aryan invasion.
3. Rig veda also talks about saraswati river, drying of river and continuance of civilization southwards towards indi-gangetic plain. 
4. Satellite image shows ruins of ancient river bed across IVC cities known to be the same saraswati river mentioned in Rig veda which dried up the same time aryans occupied the indo-ganetic plain. This can be taken as conclusive evidence of IVC being migrated to Indo-gangetic plain which later came to be known as aryan civilization. 
5. Max Muller who proposed 'aryan invasion theory' himself acknowledged that indian literature has unique place in history which contradicts his theory that states indian literature was imported by aryans from their homeland in europe.
6. Sanskrit is actually mother of all european languages but the opposite is being spread by vested interests.
7. Indus valley civilization  was the most advanced civilization at that time, it had some of the largest cities in the world at that time and is referred as urban civilization. An advanced civilization being destroyed by a tribe from europe is hard to digest.
8. there are genetic similarities present between today's indians and  Indus valley civilization people.
9. Misinterpretation and Knowingly ignoring the similarities between IVC and aryan civilization to establishing european supremacy.

Water (H2O): A Mysterious Molecule

Water may be one of the most familiar substance on the planet, but it certainly isn't ordinary. In fact, water's unique chemical properties make it so complicated that even after decades of research, scientists still have much to learn about this remarkable and versatile substance.

If we drop an ice cube into a glass of water, it floats. This happens because water expands as it freezes, which makes the solid form less dense than the liquid. But most other liquids do just the opposite; they shrink and become more dense as they freeze, so the solid form sinks. If water behaved that way, ice would accumulate on the bottom of lakes and oceans during the winter, and would have difficulty thawing in the spring. If possible, this would have consequences for aquatic life.

 Another surprising characteristic of water is that it boils at a very high temperature—100 degrees Celsius at sea level—compared to similarly sized molecules. If water behaved like other liquids, it would exist as a gas at the temperatures and pressures found on Earth, and life as we know it couldn’t survive.

Water is all around us—in the sky, on the ground, in the air—continually changing form. Water's unique chemical properties make it the only natural substance that can be found in all three states: liquid, solid (ice) and gas (steam). The continual movement of water around the globe is known as the hydrologic cycle. Several processes take place within this cycle, including evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff and collection. During the cycle, water will change form many times.

 

That’s water, as in the clear, sparkling fluid that covers three quarters of the Earth’s surface—not to mention the basis of life as we know it, and possessor of the world’s most recognizable chemical formula (H2O). Water is everywhere. And yet, scientists are still learning about its properties.  

Unique & mysterious properties: 

1. Enthalpy of vaporization:

Water has a very high specific heat capacity – the second highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. According to Josh Willis, of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the oceans absorb one thousand times more heat than the atmosphere (air) and are holding 80 to 90% of global warming heat.

 The specific enthalpy of fusion of water is 333.55 kJ/kg at 0 °C. Of common substances, only that of ammonia is higher. This property confers resistance to melting on the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before and since the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was and still is in common use for retarding food spoilage.

 2. Density of water and ice:

The density of water is approximately one gram per cubic centimeter. It is dependent on its temperature, but the relation is not linear and is unimodal rather than monotonic (see table at left). When cooled from room temperature liquid water becomes increasingly dense, as with other substances, but at approximately 4 °C (39 °F), pure water reaches its maximum density. As it is cooled further, it expands to become less dense. This unusual negative thermal expansion is attributed to strong, orientation-dependent, intermolecular interactions and is also observed in molten silica.

Water also expands significantly as the temperature increases. Water near the boiling point is about 96 percent as dense as water at 4°C.

These properties of water have important consequences in its role in Earth's ecosystem. Water at a temperature of 4°C will always accumulate at the bottom of freshwater lakes, irrespective of the temperature in the atmosphere. Since water and ice are poor conductors of heat (good insulators) it is unlikely that sufficiently deep lakes will freeze completely, unless stirred by strong currents that mix cooler and warmer water and accelerate the cooling. In warming weather, chunks of ice float, rather than sink to the bottom where they might melt extremely slowly. These properties therefore allow aquatic life in the lake to survive during the winter.

 3. Density of saltwater and ice:

The density of water is dependent on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature of the water. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content of oceans lowers the freezing point by about 2 °C and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water to the freezing point. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. For this reason, any creature attempting to survive at the bottom of such cold water as the Arctic Ocean generally lives in water that is 4 °C colder than the temperature at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers in the winter.

 In cold countries, when the temperature of fresh water reaches 4 °C, the layers of water near the top in contact with cold air continue to lose heat energy and their temperature falls below 4 °C. On cooling below 4 °C, these layers do not sink but may rise up as fresh water has a maximum density at 4 °C. (Refer: Polarity and hydrogen bonding) Due to this, the layer of water at 4 °C remains at the bottom and above this layers of water 3 °C, 2 °C, 1 °C and 0 °C are formed. Since ice is a poor conductor of heat, it does not absorb heat energy from the water beneath the layer of ice which prevents the water freezing. Thus, aquatic creatures survive in such places.

Water (H2O): A Life Sustaining Molecule

Every life form on earth began in water, no life exists without it:

1. Our histology & physiology as an evidence.

When animal moved from the sea to dry land, it took millions of years of evolution, the sea "came with them", even now  millions of years later our body liquid still resembles sea water, we started life in a bag of water at the same temperature as our mother's body, the bag eventually bursts and we are born and new life it breathed into us and suddenly we are a real person relying on air to survive leaving water to take second place, but none the less vitally important as it still makes up over 70% of our body, so for an average healthy adult that sums up to about forty plus litres.

Three litres of our water circulates in our blood with another nine litres exchanging freely with it that are distributed throughout our body tissues but remain outside of them, this twelve litres resembles the "sea that came with us" 

Two litres of water pass into our reservoir every day, and an equal amount passes out as urine and perspiration, this exchange brings in our food, vitamins and mineral requirements and also flushes toxins from the body, controlled carefully by the kidneys and our hormone system to keep (hopefully) our body cells in top condition.

These cells contain the remaining 30 litres of body fluid.

 

The Miraculous Properties of Water:

Water has many exceptional chemical properties. Every water molecule forms by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. It is quite interesting that these two gases, one combustive and the other combustible, combine to form a liquid, and most interestingly, water.
 
1. The water molecule: the hydrogen bonds.
 
Now, let us briefly see how water is formed chemically. The electrical charge of water is zero, that is, it is neutral. Yet, due to the sizes of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms, the oxygen component of the water molecule has a slightly negative charge and its hydrogen component has a slightly positive charge. When more than one water molecule come together, positive and negative charges attract each other to form a very special bond called "the hydrogen bond". The hydrogen bond is a very weak bond and it is incomprehensibly short-lived. The duration of a hydrogen bond is approximately one hundred billionth of a second. But as soon as a bond breaks, another one forms. Thus, water molecules adhere tightly to each other while also retaining their liquid form because they are combined with a weak bond. 

2. High thermal energy: the hydrogen bonds.
 

Hydrogen bonds also enable water to resist temperature changes. Even if air temperature increases suddenly, water temperature increases slowly and, similarly, if air temperature falls suddenly, water temperature drops slowly. Large temperature changes are needed to cause considerable changes in water temperature. The significantly high thermal energy of water has major benefits for life. To give a simple example, there is a great amount of water in our bodies. If water adapted to the sudden vicissitudes of temperature in the air at the same rate, we would suddenly develop fevers or freeze.  
By the same token, water needs a huge thermal energy to evaporate. Since water uses up a great deal of thermal energy while evaporating, its temperature drops. To give an example, again from the human body, the normal temperature of the body is 36º C and the highest body temperature we can tolerate is 42º C. This 6º C interval is indeed very small and even working under the sun for a few hours can increase body temperature by that amount. Yet, our bodies spend a great amount of thermal energy through sweating, that is, by causing the water it contains to evaporate, which in turn causes body temperature to drop. If our bodies did not have such an automatic mechanism, working for even a few hours under the sun could be fatal.

3. A more viscous liquid: the hydrogen bonds.
 
Hydrogen bonds equip water with yet another extraordinary property, which is water's being more viscous in its liquid state than in its solid state. As a matter of fact, most substances on earth are more viscous in their solid states than in their liquid states. Contrary to other substances, however, water expands as it freezes. This is because hydrogen bonds prevent water molecules from bonding to each other too tightly, and thus many gaps are left in between them. Hydrogen bonds are broken down when water is in liquid state, which causes oxygen atoms to come closer to each other and form a more viscous structure.

An Interesting Property of Water:

1. An unique oxygen hydride.

We all know that water boils at 100º C and freezes at 0º C. In fact, under normal circumstances, water should be boiling not at 100º C but at + 180º C. Why? 
In the periodic table, the properties of elements in the same group vary in a progressive form from light elements towards heavy elements. This order is most evident in hydrogen compounds. The compounds of the elements sharing the same group with oxygen in the periodic table are called "hydrides". In fact, water is "oxygen hydride". Hydrides of other elements in this group have the same molecular structure as the water molecule.
The boiling points of these compounds vary in a progressive way from sulphur to heavier ones; however, the boiling point of water unexpectedly goes against this pattern. Water (oxygen hydride) boils at 80º C less than it is supposed to. Another surprising situation has to do with the freezing point of water. Again, according to the order in the periodic system, water is supposed to freeze at - 100º C. Yet, water breaks this rule and freezes at 0º C, 100º C above the temperature at which it is due. This brings to mind the question as to why no other hydride, but only water (oxygen hydride) disobeys the rules of the periodic system.

Water (H2O)

                                           

IUPAC name: Water, Oxidane

Other names: Hydrogen oxide, Dihydrogen monoxide (DHMO), Hydrogen monoxide, Dihydrogen oxide, Hydrogen hydroxide (HH or HOH), Hydric acid, Hydrohydroxic acid, Hydroxic acid, Hydroxylic acid, Hydroxilic acid, Hydrol, μ-Oxido dihydrogen.


Properties:
Molecular formula: H₂O 

Molar mass: 18.01528(33) g/mol

Appearance:  white solid or almost colorless, transparent, with a slight hint of blue, crystalline solid or liquid

Density:  1000 kg/m³, liquid (4 °C) (62.4 lb/cu. ft) 917 kg/m³, solid

Melting point: 0 °C, 32 °F, (273.15 K)

Boiling point: 99.98 °C, 211.97 °F (373.13 K)

Acidity (pK_a): 15.74 ~35–36

Basicity (pK_b): 15.74

Refractive index (n_D): 1.3330

Viscosity: 0.001 Pa s at 20 °C
Crystal structure: Hexagonal

Molecular shape: Bent
Dipole moment: 1.85 D

Some more fact:

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H₂O: one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient temperature and pressure, and appears colorless in small quantities, although it has its own intrinsic very light blue hue. Ice also appears colorless, and water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas. Water is primarily a liquid under standard conditions, which is not predicted from its relationship to other analogous hydrides of the oxygen family in the periodic table, which are gases such as hydrogen sulfide. The elements surrounding oxygen in the periodic table, nitrogen, fluorine, phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine, all combine with hydrogen to produce gases under standard conditions. The reason that water forms a liquid is that oxygen is more electronegative than all of these elements with the exception of fluorine. Oxygen attracts electrons much more strongly than hydrogen, resulting in a net positive charge on the hydrogen atoms, and a net negative charge on the oxygen atom. The presence of a charge on each of these atoms gives each water molecule a net dipole moment. Electrical attraction between water molecules due to this dipole pulls individual molecules closer together, making it more difficult to separate the molecules and therefore raising the boiling point. This attraction is known as hydrogen bonding. The molecules of water are constantly moving in relation to each other, and the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at timescales faster than 200 femtoseconds. However, this bond is sufficiently strong to create many of the peculiar properties of water, such as those that make it integral to life. Water can be described as a polar liquid that slightly dissociates disproportionately into the hydronium ion (H₃O⁺(aq)) and an associated hydroxide ion (OH⁻(aq)).

2 H₂O (l) H₃O⁺ (aq) + OH⁻ (aq)

The dissociation constant for this dissociation is commonly symbolized as K_w and has a value of about 10⁻¹⁴ at 25 °C