Thursday, October 31, 2013

Androgen deprivation-hormone therapy for adenocarcinoma prostate


Androgen regulation in human body
 The hypothalamus coordinates many hormonal and behavioural circadian rhythms, complex patterns of neuroendocrine outputs, complex homeostatic mechanisms, and important behaviours.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH or LHRH Neuroendocrine cells of the Preoptic area Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) release from anterior pituitary
Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release from anterior pituitary

Human hypothalamus (animation, shown in red)
courtesy share: http://en.wikipedia.org

Pituitary gland is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem (Pituitary stalk). The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis.
Located at the base of the brain, 
the pituitary gland is protected 
by a bony structure called the  
sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.
 courtesy share: http://en.wikipedia.org
Pituitary gland
courtesy share: http://en.wikipedia.org
Gonadotropins:
  • Luteinizing hormone (also referred to as 'Lutropin' or 'LH' or, in males, 'Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone' (ICSH))
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), both released under influence of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary under the influence of the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones are secreted to the anterior lobe by way of a special capillary system, called the hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system.

Hormone therapy for adenocarcinoma prostate
Hormone therapy is also called androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) or androgen suppression therapy. The goal is to reduce levels of male hormones, called androgens, in the body, or to prevent them from reaching prostate cancer cells.
The main androgens are testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Androgens, which are made mainly in the testicles, stimulate prostate cancer cells to grow. Lowering androgen levels or stopping them from getting into prostate cancer cells often makes prostate cancers shrink or grow more slowly for a time.

Types of hormone therapy

Several types of hormone therapy can be used to treat prostate cancer.

Orchiectomy (surgical castration)
Even though this is a type of surgery, its main effect is as a form of hormone therapy. In this operation, the surgeon removes the testicles (bilateral orchiectomy), where most of the androgens (testosterone and DHT) are made. With this source removed, most prostate cancers stop growing or shrink for a time.

GnRH blockers
Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonists (receptor blockers) are a class of compounds that are similar in structure to natural GnRH (a hormone made by neurons in the hypothalamus ) but that have an antagonistic effect. GnRH antagonists are peptide molecules that are made up multiple, often synthetically produced amino acids. GnRH antagonists compete with natural GnRH for binding to GnRH receptors, thus decreasing or blocking GnRH action in the body.
Leuprolide acetate is a synthetic nonapeptide analog of naturally occurring gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH or LH-RH). The analog possesses greater potency than the natural hormone. The chemical name is 5oxo-L-prolyl-L-histidyl-L-tryptophyl-L-seryl-L-tyrosyl-D-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-arginyl-N-ethyl-L-prolinamide acetate (salt) with the following structural formula:
In adults, leuprolide may weaken your bones and increase your risk for bone loss (osteoporosis) if used for a long time because it reduces estrogen...
 

Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) analogs (blockers)
These drugs lower the amount of testosterone made by the testicles. Treatment with these drugs is sometimes called chemical castration because they lower androgen levels just as well as orchiectomy.
Even though LHRH analogs (also called LHRH agonists) cost more than orchiectomy and require more frequent doctor visits, most men choose this method. These drugs allow the testicles to remain in place, but the testicles will shrink over time, and they may even become too small to feel.
When LHRH analogs are first given, testosterone levels go up briefly before falling to very low levels. This effect is called flare and results from the complex way in which LHRH analogs work.

Anti-androgens
Anti-androgens block the effect of adrenal gland hormone as well as testicular androgens by interfering with a receptor in the nucleus of the prostate cancer cells. 
So anti-androgens block the body's ability to use any androgens. Even after orchiectomy or during treatment with LHRH analogs, the adrenal glands still make small amounts of androgens.
Drugs of this type, such as flutamide (Eulexin®), bicalutamide (Casodex®), and nilutamide (Nilandron®), are taken daily as pills.
Anti-androgens are not often used by themselves. An anti-androgen may be added to treatment if orchiectomy or an LHRH analog is no longer working by itself. An anti-androgen is sometimes given for a few weeks when an LHRH analog is first started to prevent a tumor flare.
Anti-androgen treatment may be combined with orchiectomy or LHRH analogs as first-line hormone therapy. This is called combined androgen blockade (CAB).

Duprost is a 5 alpha-reductase enzyme inhibitor. It works by lowering levels of a hormone called dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which is a major cause of prostate growth. Lowering DHT leads to shrinkage of the enlarged prostate gland, reducing the risk of urinary blockage and need for prostate surgery. Duprost (Dutasteride) is used to treat symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Silofast (8 mg) - Capsule, manufactured by Cipla Limited contains Generic Medicine Silodosin- 8 mg.Used for the symptomatic treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. 

Treatment results after the first three month medication as above:
For Post void residual urine volume (PVRUV): changes occurred from 502 cc to 381.53 cc
For weight of the prostate gland: This almost remained the same
 pre-treatment Ultrasonography studies for 'KUB'
dated: 6th July 2013
post-treatment Ultrasonography studies for 'KUB'
dated: 17th October 2013


For Prostate Specific Antigen, significant change was found as to be in the normal range:
t-PSA from H 75.94 to 1.33 ng/ml
f-PSA from H 7.32 to 0.294 ng/ml
pre-treatment 'Prostate Specific Antigen' studies

dated: 6th July 2013
post-treatment 'Prostate Specific Antigen' studies

dated: 16th October 2013

some related blog post
http://en.wikipedia.org

Monday, October 14, 2013

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia could be Adenocarcinoma Prostate



What is the Prostate?
The prostate is a walnut-sized organ that produces fluid and nutrients for sperm during ejaculation. The gland is located just under the bladder and in front of the rectum, the lower part of the bowel. The urethra, the narrow tube that spans the length of the penis and that carries both urine and semen out of the body, runs through the prostate. The glandular cells of the prostate normally function to produce a fluid that is released into the urethra during ejaculation. This fluid forms part of the seminal fluid, which nourishes the sperm. Secretions from the prostate increase the pH of the semen and help to neutralize the acidity of the female vagina.
The prostate is surrounded by blood and lymphatic vessels:

  • Blood vessels are part of the circulatory system. They supply oxygen and nutrients and remove waste from the cells of the prostate.
  • Lymphatic vessels are part of a large network termed the lymphatic system. These vessels collect and carry fluid and cells from the tissues of the body. Smaller lymphatic vessels merge with larger ones, as streams merge into a river. Large vessels empty into grape-like clusters of lymphatic tissue called lymph nodes. The lymphatic vessels of the prostate carry lymphatic fluid to a mass of lymph nodes located in the pelvic region.Prostate cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells in the prostate gland, a gland found only in men. Although the prostate is made up of several cell types, almost all prostate cancers develop in the glandular cells. Cancer of gland cells is known as adenocarcinoma.
Prostate cancer symptoms usually start in the area of the gland that can be felt by a doctor during a DRE, thus leading to early prostate cancer diagnosis.
Most men will not experience any symptoms of prostate cancer if it is caught early. However, some men do, and these symptoms may include the following.
  • A need to urinate frequently, especially at night
  • Difficulty starting urination or holding back urine
  • Weak or interrupted flow of urine
  • Painful or burning urination
  • Difficulty in having an erection
  • Painful ejaculation
  • Blood in urine or semen
  • Frequent pain or stiffness in the lower back, hips, or upper thighs
Although most patients will have urinary symptoms related primarily to BPH, a workup for prostate cancer may be indicated by a DRE or an abnormal Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) blood test.

Diagnosis of prostate cancer
A Pelvic ultrasound scan in males is used to view the bladder and prostate (An ultrasound examination, also commonly referred to as a sonogram). Amongst other conditions, ultrasound can detect enlargement of the prostate (benign prostatic hypertrophy) and tumours.
The bladder is an organ made of smooth muscle that stores urine until ready for release. The most common reason for bladder ultrasound is to assess bladder emptying by measuring residual urine after urination. Many conditions may result in disorders of bladder emptying and these include an enlarged prostate, urethral stricture or bladder dysfunction. Bladder ultrasound may also provide information about the bladder wall, the presence of diverticula of the bladder, the size of the prostate, the presence of stones or large tumors in the bladder.
Another common indication for ultrasound is obtaining the volume or size of the prostate for treatment planning purposes. 
Digital  rectal exam Digital rectal exams (DRE) are very useful for the detection of abnormalities, including cancer, in the rectum. A doctor inserts a gloved, lubricated finger in the rectum and feels for abnormalities. In men, digital rectal exams are also used to detect changes in prostate that could indicate an abnormal condition, including cancer. The procedure is very quick and although it may be uncomfortable, it is not painful.
An enlarged prostate means the gland has grown bigger. Prostate enlargement happens to almost all men as they get older. As the gland grows, it can press on the urethra and cause urination and bladder problems. An enlarged prostate is often called benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) or benign prostatic hypertrophy.
BPH involves hyperplasia (an increase in the number of cells) rather than hypertrophy (a growth in the size of individual cells), but the two terms are often used interchangeably, even amongst urologists
PSA test The prostate specific antigen is a glycoprotein produced by prostate cells and is a normal component of semen. When abnormal events occur in the prostate, such as prostate cancer, the overabundance of prostate cells, the overproduction of PSA, or the leaking of PSA into the bloodstream may result in a measurable increase in the level of PSA in the blood. Blood test are used to assess the level of PSA in the blood. A higher-than-normal level of PSA might indicate a problem with the prostate, including, but not limited to, cancer.
Normal PSA values In general, a PSA level less than 4 ng/ml is considered normal, and greater than 10 ng/ml is considered high. Levels between 4 and 10 ng/ml represent a grey area in which a doctor may consider a digital rectal exam before recommending further testing.
Interpretation of PSA test results The interpretation of PSA levels is not straightforward. Elevated PSA levels indicate something has caused more PSA than usual to enter the bloodstream from the prostate, but the test is not able to identify the cause of the elevation. Several factors can cause a rise in PSA levels, such as a prostate infection or benign enlargement of the prostate.(1) Many men with elevated PSA levels DO NOT have prostate cancer. Additionally, not all prostate cancers cause PSA levels to rise. These cancers would not be detected by the PSA test. Prostate cancer, unlike many other cancers, often grows slowly, and does not always pose a significant health risk. Some prostate cancers do grow quickly, but neither the PSA test nor any available test today can differentiate between slow and fast growing prostate cancers. While some people will benefit from having the PSA test, patients should discuss the benefits and limitations of this test with their health care provider before having it performed and when interpreting the results. (http://sciencedoing.blogspot.in/2013/08/prostate-specific-antigen-misnomer-and.html)
Normal ranges by age group commonly used include
  • Men below age 50: PSA less than 2.5
  • Men 50 - 59 years: PSA level less than 3.5
  • Men 60 - 69 years: PSA level less than 4.5
  • Men older than 70 years: PSA level less than 6.5
Increased levels of PSA may suggest the presence of prostate cancer. However, prostate cancer can also be present in the complete absence of an elevated PSA level, in which case the test result would be a false negative.PSA levels can be also increased by prostatitis, irritation, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and recent ejaculation, producing a false positive result. Digital rectal examination (DRE) has been shown in several studies to produce an increase in PSA. However, the effect is clinically insignificant, since DRE causes the most substantial increases in patients with PSA levels already elevated over 4.0 ng/mL.

Free PSA Most PSA in the blood is bound to serum proteins. A small amount is not protein bound and is called 'free PSA'. In men with prostate cancer the ratio of free (unbound) PSA to total PSA is decreased. The risk of cancer increases if the free to total ratio is less than 25%. (See graph at right.) The lower the ratio is, the greater the probability of prostate cancer. Measuring the ratio of free to total PSA appears to be particularly promising for eliminating unnecessary biopsies in men with PSA levels between 4 and 10 ng/mL. However, both total and free PSA increase immediately after ejaculation, returning slowly to baseline levels within 24 hours.
Biopsy Non invasive diagnostic techniques, like MRI, Ultrasound, CT or PET, are very useful but in some cases when a suspicious abnormality (lesion) is discovered a doctor may perform a biopsy to determine its exact characteristics. A biopsy is the removal of either a portion of a lesion (incisional) or the entire lesion (excisional).  The tissues is then sent to a lab where a pathologist will diagnose the sample. There are two categories of biopsies.
  • Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA):
    • Benign - the mass is not of much concern and will not cause any significant problems as long as it remains unchanged.
    • Atypically indeterminate - a diagnosis cannot be obtained from the sample. Other tests are needed to determine the nature of the lesion.
    • Suspicious/probably malignant - not a diagnosis of cancer. This type of diagnosis requires additional investigation because the sample has abnormal characteristics. This lesion should be biopsied with a more complete method to determine whether a malignancy (cancer) is present.
    • Malignant - a diagnosis of cancer; should be biopsied and tested for exact tumor makeup to prepare for treatment.
    • Unsatisfactory - a diagnosis cannot be determined from the sample because of insufficient sample size, processing or other machine or human errors.
  • Core Needle Biopsy (CNB): Because cancer cells are dividing in an abnormal fashion, they make the tissue around them appear disorganized. By examining collections of cells (tissue) instead of individual cells, pathologists get a good sense for the health of the organ from which the sample was removed. The study of tissues is called histology and the study of abnormal tissues is called histopathology.
Cytological examination (prostate secretion) The study of cells, their origin, structure, function, and pathology is called cytology. 
Cells are continually shed (exfoliated) from tissues that line the cavities and hollow organs of the body. These exfoliated cells may float in the fluid and mucous material bathes or passes through these cavities. These cells can be examined microscopically to determine their tissue of origin and whether or not they are malignant.
(As a further guide, histology is the study of tissues, while cytology is the study of cells.)
Histopathological examination Diagnosis of prostatic carcinoma requires a synthesis of a constellation of histological attributes that allows for a definitive diagnosis. A conceptual framework for a rationale approach to this diagnosis entails application of major and minor criteria:
  • Major criteria
    • - Architectural: infiltrative small glands or cribriform glands too large or irregular to represent high‐grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN)
    • - Single cell layer (absence of basal cells)
    • - Nuclear atypia: nuclear and nucleolar enlargement
  • Minor criteria
    • - Intraluminal wispy blue mucin (blue‐tinged mucinous secretions)
    • - Pink amorphous secretions
    • - Mitotic figures
    • - Intraluminal crystalloids
    • - Adjacent high‐grade PIN
    • - Amphophilic cytoplasm
    • - Nuclear hyperchromasia
Gleason score The pathologist assigns a Gleason score based on the sum of two numbers: the first number is the grade of the most common tumor pattern, the second number is the grade of the second most common pattern.
A pathologist examines the biopsy specimen and attempts to give a score to the two patterns.
  • First called the primary grade, represents the majority of tumor (has to be greater than 50% of the total pattern seen).
  • Second - a secondary grade - relates to the minority of the tumor (has to be less than 50%, but at least 5%, of the pattern of the total cancer observed).
If there are three patterns the first number is the most common and the second is the one with the highest grade. For example, if the most common tumor pattern was grade 3, but some cells were found to be grade 4, the Gleason Score would be 3+4 = 7. The Gleason Grade or Gleason Pattern ranges from 1 to 5, with 5 having the worst prognosis. The Gleason Score ranges from 2 to 10, with 10 having the worst prognosis. For Gleason Score 7, a Gleason 4+3 is a more aggressive cancer than a Gleason 3+4.
The scoring system is named after Donald Gleason, a pathologist at the Minneapolis Veterans Affairs Hospital who developed it; 'modified Gleason score' has higher performance than the original one, and is currently assumed standard in urological pathology.
Gleason patterns are associated with the following features:
  • Pattern 1 - The cancerous prostate closely resembles normal prostate tissue. The glands are small, well-formed, and closely packed.
  • Pattern 2 - The tissue still has well-formed glands, but they are larger and have more tissue between them.
  • Pattern 3 - The tissue still has recognizable glands, but the cells are darker. At high magnification, some of these cells have left the glands and are beginning to invade the surrounding tissue.
  • Pattern 4 - The tissue has few recognizable glands. Many cells are invading the surrounding tissue
  • Pattern 5 - The tissue does not have recognizable glands. There are often just sheets of cells throughout the surrounding tissue.

In present form of the Gleason system, prostate cancer of Gleason pattern 1 and 2 are almost never seen, and by definition are almost never seen on biopsy. Gleason pattern 3 is by far the most common. Thus a Gleason score 3+3=6 cancer is to be regarded as LOWEST grade seen in practice, and indeed these cancers usually have rather good prognoses.
Staging and grading of prostate cancer: After examination and biopsy, doctors will "stage" and "grade" prostate cancer with a system of letters and numbers.
Grade: Grade refers to the expected aggressiveness of the tumor based on the biopsy. The most common grading system is the Gleason system. Grades 1 and 2 are closer in appearance to normal glands, and are the slowest growing, better behaving tumors. Grades 4 and 5 have more variations in size of tumor cells and loss of glandular appearance, and are the more aggressive tumors.


Stage: The clinical stage of a cancer is the extent of disease, whether it is localized, spread regionally, or spread more widely to lymph nodes or bones.
A system of staging used by the National Cancer Institute and most doctors is called TNM Staging (clinical and pathological). This stands for:
  • Tumor size - how big the tumor is and has it spread in the area
  • Lymph Nodes - are any lymph nodes positive for cancer and how many
  • Metastasis - has the cancer spread to any other parts of the body
----------------
some related blog post


Prostate Cancer Risk Factors
The risk of developing prostate cancer can be linked to age, race/ethnicity, and family history of the disease.

How to Reduce the Risk of Prostate Cancer
Lycopene and antioxidants found in tomatoes and other pink and red foods may reduce prostate cancer risks. Men should consume a diet that includes a variety of fruits and vegetables. Because these foods tend to be lower in calories, choosing these foods instead of those higher in calories may also to less obesity.
Antioxidant and lycopene rich food supplement is beneficial, as from latest research findings
# 2013-08-24, WASHINGTON, Aug. 23 (Xinhua) -- U.S. researchers said Friday that a greater consumption of fruits and vegetables may reduce the risk of developing invasive bladder cancer in women.
Researchers from the University of Hawaii wrote in the Journal of Nutrition that they analyzed data collected from 185,885 older adults over a period of 12.5 years. Overall, 152 women and 429 men were diagnosed with invasive bladder cancer.
After adjusting for variables related to cancer risk, such as age, the researchers found that women who consumed the most fruits and vegetables had the lowest bladder risk.
The researchers said women consuming the most yellow-orange vegetables were 52 percent less likely to have bladder cancer than women consuming the least yellow-orange vegetables.
The study also suggested that women with the highest intake of vitamins A, C and E had the lowest risk of bladder cancer.
There were, however, no associations between fruit and vegetable intake and invasive bladder cancer in men, it said.
"Our study supports the fruit and vegetable recommendation for cancer prevention," researcher Song-Yi Park at the University of Hawaii Cancer Center said in a statement.
"However, further investigation is needed to understand and explain why the reduced cancer risk with higher consumption of fruits and vegetables was confined to only women," Park added.


* Genetics:
Recently, a mutation in a gene called HOXB13 has been linked to early onset prostate cancer that runs in families. This mutation is rare, though, found in less than 2% of the men with prostate cancer that were studied.
The HOXB13 gene and most of the genes that have been studied so far are from chromosomes that are inherited from both parents. Some research has found that a certain variant of mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from a person's mother, might double or even triple a man's risk of developing prostate cancer.
One of the biggest problems now facing men with prostate cancer and their doctors is figuring out which cancers are likely to stay within the gland and which are more likely to grow and spread (and definitely need treatment). New discoveries may help with this in the near future. For example, the product of a gene known as EZH2 seems to appear more often in advanced prostate cancers than in those at an early stage. Researchers are now trying to decide whether the presence of this gene product, or others, indicates that a cancer is more aggressive. This could eventually help tell which men need treatment and which might be better served by active surveillance.

* a new diagnostic tool :
# checking for the presence of the protein Engrailed-2 (EN2) in the urine. Homeobox protein engrailed-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EN2 gene. A method for diagnosing prostate cancer by detection of EN2 in urine has developed. The results of a clinical trial of 288 men suggest that EN2 could be a marker for prostate cancer which might prove more reliable than current methods that use prostate-specific antigen (PSA). If effective, a urine test is considered easier and less embarrassing for the patient than blood tests or rectal examinations


# thankfully consulted and referred from:
http://www.webmd.com/urinary-incontinence-oab/picture-of-the-prostate
http://www.cancer.org/cancer/prostatecancer/detailedguide/prostate-cancer-new-research
http://www.cancerquest.org
https://winshipcancer.emory.edu
http://training.seer.cancer.gov
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1860598/
http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid=45696
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EN2_%28gene%29
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/health/2013-08/24/c_132658367.htm




Thursday, October 10, 2013

Nobel Laureates Facts


59 is the average age of a Nobel laureate


Physics Laureate: 55
Chemistry Laureate: 57
Medicine Laureate: 57
Nobel Peace Laureate: 62
Literature Laureate: 64
Laureate in Economic Sciences: 67
Nobel Laureate (all categories): 59



25 is the age of the youngest
At the year when the Prize was awarded, the 5 youngest Nobel Laureates are all within Physics:


90 is the age of the oldest
The 5 eldest Nobel Laureates at the year the Prize was awarded are:

Leonid Hurwicz, 90 years old
Lloyd Shapley, 89 years old
Raymond Davis Jr., 88 years old
Doris Lessing, 88 years old
Yoichiro Nambu, 87 years old


49 laureates are younger than 40
49 out of all 862 Laureates are younger than 40 years old at the year of the award. Most of them are Physics Laureates. There are no Literature Laureates nor Laureates in Economic Sciences under the age of 40.

21 head of state awarded awarded a Nobel prize
All of them are Peace Prize Laureates except for one Literature Laureate.

44 Nobel prizes to women so far

7 laureates have a Nobel laureate parents

Irène Joliot-Curie is the daughter of Marie and Pierre Curie
Lawrence Bragg is the son of William Bragg
Aage N. Bohr is the son of Niels Bohr
Ulf von Euler is the son of Hans von Euler-Chelpin
Roger D. Kornberg is the son of Arthur Kornberg
Kai M. Siegbahn is the son of Manne Siegbahn
George Paget Thomson is the son of J. J. Thomson 


Nobel laureates and country of birth

  • 10 Laureates born in Australia
  • 10 Laureates born in China
  • 6 Laureates born in Egypt
  • 49 Laureates born in France
  • 11 Laureates born in India
  • 17 Laureates born in Japan
  • 8 Laureates born in South Africa
  • 247 Laureates born in the U.S.A.

#share courtesy: http://www.nobelprize.org/    

Wednesday, October 9, 2013

Nobel in chemistry: multiscale models for complex chemical systems

The Nobel Prize in chemistry has gone to three scientists who "took the chemical experiment into cyberspace".

"Today the computer is just as important a tool for chemists as the test tube.

The exact mechanics of a chemical reaction are hard to observe in the laboratory.
"Molecules are lazy creatures. Most of the time they don't do anything," said Gunnar Karlstrom from the Royal Academy. "They just swing around and don't do anything, and then suddenly, when they react, everything goes quick, like that."
New computer programs allow scientists to make models of these speedy reactions and study them at a slower pace, he said.
The three scientists combined the principles of traditional Newtonian physics, which has the advantage of being simple, with quantum physics, which is much more complex but also much more accurate, because it deals with what goes on at a subatomic level.
"The Nobel Laureates in Chemistry 2013 have made it possible to map the mysterious ways of chemistry by using computers," said the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

The trio made it possible "to map the mysterious ways of chemistry using computers".
Karplus, a U.S. and Austrian citizen, carries out research at the University of Strasbourg and Harvard University. Levitt, a U.S. and British citizen, is at the Stanford University School of Medicine.
Warshel, a U.S. and Israel citizen, is a professor at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles.

"Today the computer is just as important a tool for chemists as the test tube," the academy said in a statement. "Computer models mirroring real life have become crucial for most advances made in chemistry today.
"Chemical reactions occur at lightning speed; electrons jump between atomic nuclei, hidden from the prying eyes of scientists," the academy added.

Modelling proteins and their interactions in the human body has led to new drug treatments

Designing drugs:
Ultimately, the ability to computerize such complex chemical processes might make it possible to simulate a complete living organism at the molecular level - something Levitt has described as one of his dreams.
"It's like seeing a watch and wondering how actually it works," Warshel, talking about the use of computer programs, told reporters in Stockholm by phone link.
"You can use it to design drugs, or in my case, to satisfy your curiosity."

Did you know ?....105 Nobel Prizes in Chemistry have been awarded between 1901 and 2013. 63 Chemistry Prizes have been given to one Laureate only. 4 women have been awarded the Chemistry Prize so far. 1 person, Frederick Sanger, has been awarded the Chemistry Prize twice, in 1958 and in 1980. 35 years was the age of the youngest Chemistry Laureate ever, Frédéric Joliot, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935. 85 years was the age of the oldest Chemistry Laureate, John B. Fenn, when he was awarded the Chemistry Prize in 2002. 57 is the average age of the Nobel Laureates in Chemistry the year they were awarded the prize.

consulted and shared thankfully: http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/09/us-nobel-chemistry-idUSBRE9980AO20131009  http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/09/world/europe/sweden-nobel-prize-chemistry/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24458534http://www.nobelprize.org/

 

 

 

 

Tuesday, October 8, 2013

Nobel for God particle: Peter Higgs the particle man

Two scientists have won the Nobel prize in physics for their work on the theory of the Higgs boson.

"The awarded theory is a central part of the Standard Model of particle physics that describes how the world is constructed," the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said in a post on Twitter.

The Nobel committee decided Peter Higgs, from the UK, and Francois Englert from Belgium, should jointly take the accolade for the boson, discovered at Cern in 2012

Cern director general Rolf Heuer joined physicists celebrating the announcement
In the 1960s they were among several physicists who proposed a mechanism to explain why the most basic building blocks of the Universe have mass.
The mechanism predicts a particle - the Higgs boson - which was finally discovered in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider at Cern, in Switzerland.
"This year's prize is about something small that makes all the difference," said Staffan Normark, permanent secretary of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Francois Englert and Peter Higgs meet at CERN in 2012 during an announcement of the discovery of the Higgs boson. The discovery came nearly 50 years after they proposed the theory behind it in independent papers that led to their being awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize for physics.
(Credit: CERN)
It took thousands of scientists working at the a underground particle accelerator 27km in circumference called the Large Hadron Collider at CERN near Geneva, an effort that took years. 
The Standard Model is the simplest set of ingredients - elementary particles - needed to make up the world we see in the heavens and in the laboratory
Quarks combine together to make, for example, the proton and neutron - which make up the nuclei of atoms today - though more exotic combinations were around in the Universe's early days
Leptons come in charged and uncharged versions; electrons - the most familiar charged lepton - together with quarks make up all the matter we can see; the uncharged leptons are neutrinos, which rarely interact with matter
The "force carriers" are particles whose movements are observed as familiar forces such as those behind electricity and light (electromagnetism) and radioactive decay (the weak nuclear force)
The Higgs boson came about because although the Standard Model holds together neatly, nothing requires the particles to have mass; for a fuller theory, the Higgs - or something else - must fill in that gap
A proton-proton collision produced in the Large Hadron Collider shows characteristics in line with the decay of a Higgs boson particle.
CERN's Globe of Science and Innovation exhibition center and surface buildings, which provide access to the Large Hadron Collider, can be seen near Geneva, Switzerland.
Professor Peter Higgs inside the Large Hadron Collider, the most powerful "atom smasher" ever built
It took nearly half a century to prove Professor Higgs' theory
Higgs enthusiasts camped overnight in order to get a seat in Cern's lecture theatre
The theory came to Prof Higgs over a number of weeks while at home in Edinburgh, not in a Eureka moment in the Cairngorms
Peter Higgs: Particle Man: Here's something to inspire every late developer: Peter Higgs didn't win a prize for physics until he was 52.

Best explanation of Higgs boson..
Scientists' best theory for why different things have mass is the "Higgs field" - where mass can be seen as a measure of the resistance to movement. The "Higgs field" is shown here as a room of physicists chatting among themselves.
A well-known scientist walks into the room and causes a bit of a stir - attracting admirers with each step and interacting strongly with them - signing autographs and stopping to chat.
As she becomes surrounded by admiring fans, she finds it harder to move across the room - in this analogy, she acquires mass due to the "field" of fans, with each fan acting like a single Higgs boson.
If a less popular scientist enters the room, only a small crowd gathers, with no-one clamouring for attention. He finds it easier to move across the room - by analogy, his interaction with the bosons is lower, and so he has a lower mass.
And....
The matter we can detect accounts for less than 5% of the Universe that should be there. A significant chunk of the missing 95% may be dark matter made from heavier siblings of the fundamental particles we already know. The Higgs Boson's heavier cousins - if they're there - may give our first glimpses of the dark Universe.

Did You Know? 106 Nobel Prizes in Physics have been awarded between 1901-2012. 47 Physics Prizes have been given to one Laureate only. 2 women have been awarded the Physics Prize so far. 1 person, John Bardeen, has been awarded the Physics Prize twice. 25 years was the age of the youngest Physics Laureate ever, Lawrence Bragg, when he was awarded the 1915 Physics Prize together with his father. 55 is the average age of the Physics Laureates the year they were awarded the prize.

thankfully consulted and shared from:
http://www.nobelprize.org/ http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-57606460-76/higgs-boson-theory-nets-nobel-for-pair-of-physicists/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-18702455 http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/08/world/europe/sweden-nobel-prize-physics/index.html